Artificialism, Artificial Inteliginism, AInism ... new philosophies focused on on AI?

November 4, 2023

Artificialism, Artificial Inteliginism, and AInism can be the "new" philosophies focused on artificial intelligence (AI). They would not be entirely "new" or completely original philosophies, but rather derivatives of existing human philosophies.

Philosophising to break the ice, it can be mentioned that nothing is ever wholly original. Everything derives from a preexisting something. Reality, whatever it may be, is always something that by definition or structure has always existed and will always exist in one form or another. Reality is something that is in constant and eternal change. The concept of "nothing" is a human illusion or intuitive misconception. There is never "nothing" because there is always something that is being transformed. There is no absolute beginning or end. Segments of transformations may be assigned arbitrary beginnings and ends, but the transformation process itself is eternal without beginning or end because to begin always requires a starting point that comes from something and cannot come from nothing that is not in fact something in and of itself.

Semi absurd arguments as the ones above are not uncommon on philosophical discussions that can fill time eternally without a non-arbitrary and non-axiomatic resolution. The upcoming philosophies and intellectual movements focused on AI promise to be very interesting and potentially enlightening. Whether we name them Artificialism, Artificial Inteliginism, AInism, or anything else, adding the realm of AI to the field of human philosophy promises to be a mind-bending exercise like yoga for the imaginary soul.

For the love of wisdom.

Philosophy is humanity's attempt to understand the universe and the place of humanity within it. The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek words "philos," meaning love, and "sophia," meaning wisdom. Thus "philosophy" in an etymological sense and in practice can be thought of as the love of learning; the love of generating wisdom.

Philosophists ponder fundamental questions regarding the nature of reality, knowledge, morality, art, and reasoning. Philosophy involves critical thinking and the systematic exploration of ideas. Philosophy is divided into several branches, each of which focuses on a specific area of inquiry.

Metaphysics, focused on the nature of reality.
Epistemology, focused on the nature of knowledge.
Logic, focused on the nature of reasoning.
Aesthetics. focused on appreciation of beauty and art.
Ethics, focused on moral values to promote individual flourishing and social order.

Philosophy has a long history, and is as old as humanity. Historically, philosophical movements tend to be tied to religious, political, economic, and social contexts. They are typically tied, not only to the love of knowledge, but also to practical considerations of promoting individual development and social order. The trend appears to be a progression from dogmatic mythology to scientific technology. However, throughout millenia the same fundamental questions remain unanswered. The more humans dig into the depths of knowledge, the deeper they get into the abyss of ignorance.

Why philosophy? Because life is pain and learning brings temporary pleasure. Wisdom can be an effective analgesic to make ordinary human life less painful and more tolerable. The fundamental solution to the problem of life is death, which is the relative absence of pain. The majority of living organisms inherit a strong conservation instinct (fear of death), which helped all of their ancestors survive. Most organisms thus look for ways to manage the pain of life over time rather than to end it at once by suicide. Intelligent life is pain management. Wisdom is choosing the best pain option and the optimum pain management plan.

Philosophy, as the love of wisdom, is a technology (tool and method) that can help humans cope with the pain of their existence. This article scratches the surface of some of the philosophies that will serve as a basis to a "new" philosophy focused on AI. It's a long summary. Visit it often as it is revised and updated.

Pre-civilization philosophies (c. 200,000 CE - 4,500 CE)

Ancient Civilization Philosophies

Mesopotamian Philosophy (c. 4500 - 2000 BCE)
Egyptian Philosophy (c. 3100 - 350 BCE)
Indian Philosophies (c. 1500-500 BCE - present), Hinduism, Jain, Buddhism
Persian Philosophy (c 600 BCE - 650 CE), Zoroastrianism
Chinese Philosophies (c. 600s BCE - present): Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism
Japanese Philosophies (c. 600s - present): Shintoism, Zen

Ancient Greek Philosophies

Pre-Socratic Greek Philosophies (c. 600-400 BCE)
Socratic Greek Philosophy (469-322 BCE): Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
Hellenistic Greek Philosophies (300s BCE - 200s CE): epicureanism, stoicism, skepticism

Middle Eastern Philosophies

Jewish Philosophy
Christian Philosophy
Islamic Philosophy

"Indigenous" Philosophies

Mesoamerican Philosophies
Native American Philosophies
Sub Saharan African Philosophies
Norse Germanic Philosophies
Sample South Asian Philosophies. Polynesian, Indonesian, Filipino

Western Philosophies

Medieval Philosophy (400s - 1300s): Christianism
Renaissance Philosophy (1300s - 1600s): Protestantism
Enlightenment Philosophies (1600s - 1800s): rationalism, empiricism, esotericism, idealism
Modern Philosophy (1800s - 1900s): positivism, phenomenology, existentialism, utilitarianism, perennialism, humanism, pragmatism, realism.
Contemporary Philosophy: (1900s - 2000s) naturalism, rationalism, essentialism, structuralism, postmodernism, post structuralism, progressivism, reconstructionism, cosmopolitanism, globalism, feminism, African American philosophy.

Western Religious Philosophies

Catholicism
Protestantism
Evangelicalism

Economic and Political Philosophies

Capitalism
Socialism
Communism
Naziism
Fascism
Conservatism
Liberalism
Progressivisism
Populism

Emerging Philosophy

Transhumanism
Objetism

Pre-civilization Philosophies

Pre-civilization philosophies, sometimes also misnamed indigenous philosophies, refer to the worldviews, belief systems, and ethical frameworks that seem rooted in the traditions of humans before the advent of civilization. These philosophies were transmitted orally, through storytelling, cultural practices, rituals, and the arts. The earliest ones were not documented for obvious reasons. For example, when Europeans were primitive or not civilized yet, there was no one documenting their uncivilized practices of normal human development.

Common characteristics of pre-civilization philosophies include:

Storytelling. Invariably, pre-civilization human philosophies were preserved and transmitted through stories, legends, poems, songs, rituals, and ceremonies. Human philosophies predate the invention of writing. Oral traditions were vital to maintaining a coherent community.
Mythology. Imaginary supernatural forces (gods, demons, spirits, etc.) were pratically universally used by early humans worldwide to explain phenomena of the natural and physical world. Animism or assigning a spiritual component to nature and the environment was a practically universal indigenous tenet. Creationism fiction was a common recourse to explain the origins of the world. Natural phenomena was believed to be subject to supernatural control and influence.
Interconnectedness. Early humans invariably felt a deep sense of connection to the rest of nature and the environment, all seen as part of an interconnected whole subject to different forces.
Harmony. Humans instinctively try to live in harmony with an oftentimes brutally painful nature and in balance with the potentially perilous physical forces evident in a mostly hostile world.
Ancestry. Elders were venerated and respected as the keepers of knowledge, tradition, and wisdom. Ancestral knowledge was highly valued and seen as a necessary guide for survival. Dead ancestors were typically worshipped as part of the animistic traditions and beliefs in spirits.
Community. The sense of self was typically collective rather than individualistic. Identity was typically embedded in ancestral, familial, and community foundations.
Cycles. A cyclical or non-linear understanding of time, where time was seen as a series of cycles (e.g., seasons, life cycles) rather than a linear progression from past to future, was common.

These characteristics are generalizations and there is immense diversity within pre-civilization cultures. Each group has its own unique philosophies that reflect their particular histories, environments, languages, and customs.

Ancient Mesopotamian Philosophy

Ancient Mesopotamia, which included civilizations such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, had a vast tradition of mythology, law, and cosmology that contained philosophical insights. Most records of Babylonian myths date back to 700 B.C., when they were transcribed in cuneiform on clay tablets and stored in the library of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. The Enuma Elish, an ancient Babylonian creation myth, and the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the world's oldest surviving works of literature, contain philosophical insights on human nature, morality, and the divine.

Enuma Elish, also known as The Seven Tablets of Creation, is a tale about how the great god Marduk defeated chaos to establish order and create the world. Marduk, who was the chief god of the city of Babylon, battles the elder goddess Tiamat to become the Lord of the Gods of Heaven and Earth. Marduk kills Tiamat and splits her body in two, making the sky out of one half and the earth out of the other. Marduk then replaces the god Enlil, who had been the former head god of the pantheon. The myth promotes the philosophy and ethics of effort, courage, law, and order.

Ancient Egyptian Philosophy

Ancient Egypt contributed to the development of moral and religious philosophy. The art of philosophy practiced by the ancient Egyptians is vastly different from what we now perceive philosophy to be. It was characterized by merely two formulas — learning to live, and learning to die. Texts such as the Instruction of Ptahhotep and the Book of the Dead included ethical guidelines and insights, especially in an imaginary afterlife. Egyptian cosmology and mythology influenced Greek and later Western philosophy. Some ancient Greek philosophers regarded Egypt as a place of wisdom and philosophy.

Ancient Egyptian philosophy was based on the belief that nature was controlled by supernatural forces. The word "netjer" encompassed not only the concept of gods, but also what might be termed demons. These netjer forces were believed to be involved in all aspects of human society. Ancient Egyptians believed that the supernatural forces dictated how humans lived, how they treated each other, how they farmed or worked, and how they could achieve a good afterlife.

Persian Philosophy

Zoroastrianism, founded by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Persia, introduced the human world to the concepts of dualistic cosmology and the moral struggle between "good" and "evil". The Gathas, a collection of hymns composed by Zoroaster, contain his teachings on righteousness, justice, and the importance of moral choice to have "good" prevail over "evil".

Ancient Indian Philosophies

Ancient Hindu philosophy encompasses a wide range of ideas, beliefs, and practices. The Vedas are the oldest and most authoritative texts containing the philosophical and religions traditions of Hinduism. The Vedas contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical teachings that were used by the ancient Indian priests (Brahmins) in religious ceremonies.

The Upanishads are a collection of philosophical texts that explore the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate truth (Brahman). The teachings of the Upanishads are often referred to as Vedanta, meaning "the end of the Vedas." The Brahmanas are prose texts that provide explanations and interpretations of the Vedic rituals.

The Aranyakas are transitional texts that bridge the gap between the ritualistic Brahmanas and the philosophical Upanishads.

Key Concepts in Vedic and Early Hindu Philosophy include the following:

Atman: The individual self or soul, which is considered to be eternal and divine.
Brahman: The ultimate reality or universal soul, which is the source of all existence.
Karma: The law of cause and effect, where actions in this life determine the conditions of future lives.
Samsara: The reincarnating cycle of birth, death, and rebirth driven by karma.
Moksha: Liberation from samsara and union with Brahman.

There are six schools of Hindu philosophy, known as the darshanas, which developed from the teachings of the Vedas and the Upanishads.

Nyaya (logic)
Vaisheshika (atomism)
Samkhya (enumeration)
Yoga (discipline)
Mimamsa (ritual exegesis), and
Vedanta (end of the Vedas).

Each school has its own unique perspective on the nature of reality, the self, and the path to liberation.

Vedic and early Hindu philosophy has had a profound impact on the development of Indian and Hindi culture to this date. Being the most country on Earth, with a population of 1.4 billion humans and 33 million living outside of India (9 million in the United States alone), Indian culture is currently influential worldwide and promises to become even more influential in the future. Yoga, for example, has been exported worldwide and continues increasing in popularity year after year.

Jain

Jain philosophy is one of the ancient philosophical traditions of India from the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Jainism emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), non-possessiveness (aparigraha), and self-discipline as the path to liberation.

Here are some key principles of Jain philosophy:

Ahimsa (Non-violence): Jainism places a strong emphasis on non-violence, both in thought and action. This principle extends to all living beings, including animals and plants. Jains practice a strict vegetarian diet and take great care to avoid harming any form of life.
Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness): Jainism teaches that attachment to material possessions can lead to suffering. Jains strive to live a simple and austere life, free from unnecessary possessions.
Anekantavada (Non-absolutism): Jainism recognizes the limitations of human knowledge and perception, and teaches that reality is multifaceted and complex. Anekantavada encourages tolerance and respect for differing viewpoints.
Syadvada (Conditional Assertion): Syadvada is a method of communication that reflects the Jain principle of non-absolutism. It involves qualifying statements to reflect the complexity and multifaceted nature of reality.
Karma: Jainism believes that actions have consequences, and that the accumulation of karma can bind the soul to the cycle of birth and death. The goal of Jain practice is to purify the soul by eliminating karma and achieving liberation (moksha).
Jiva and Ajiva: Jainism distinguishes between living beings (jiva) and non-living entities (ajiva). The soul is considered to be eternal and has the potential to attain liberation through right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct.

Overall, Jain philosophy offers a unique perspective on ethics, metaphysics, and the nature of reality. Its emphasis on non-violence, non-possessiveness, and self-discipline has had a profound impact on Indian culture and philosophy.

Confucianism

Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius (Kong Fuzi or Kongzi), who lived in China from 551 BCE to 479 BCE. Confucianism emphasizes the importance of family, moral integrity, righteousness, and respect for tradition and social hierarchy.

Key Concepts of Confucianism:

Ren (仁) - Benevolence. Ren is the central virtue in Confucianism, representing compassion, empathy, and the desire to do good.
Yi (义) - Righteousness. Yi represents moral disposition to do good and act ethically.
Li (礼) - Propriety. Li refers to the proper way of doing things, including rituals, manners, and social etiquette to maintain social harmony and respect.
Xiao (孝) - Ancestry. Xiao emphasizes the importance of respecting and honoring one's parents and ancestors.
Zhi (智) - Wisdom. Zhi refers to the ability to make good judgments and understand the principles of morality.

Confucianism has had a profound impact on East Asian societies, influencing China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. It has shaped their social structures, ethical values, educational systems, and political institutions. Confucianism was the state ideology of China for much of its history and played a significant role in shaping the Chinese civilization. Today, Confucian values continue to influence East Asian cultures, although they are also being reinterpreted and adapted to modern contexts.

Shintoism

Shinto, also known as kami-no-michi, means "the way of the kami (gods or spirits)." It is a polytheistic faith centered around the worship of kami, which can be gods, spirits, ancestors, or even natural phenomena like mountains and rivers.

Key features of Shintoism:

Kami. Shintoists believe in kami, which are divine spirits that inhabit natural objects and phenomena. Kami can also be ancestral spirits. People pray to kami for guidance, blessings, and protection.
Purity. Shinto emphasizes the importance of ritual purification to cleanse oneself of pollution and impurity. This is often done through water ablutions, known as misogi. Ritual purification is an essential aspect of Shinto practices, and it is believed that purifying oneself from pollutants brings one closer to the kami. This influences Japanese culture of cleanliness and ritualistic devotion to quality.
Tradition. The practice of rituals and traditions is crucial in Shinto. These rituals serve to connect the past and the present, maintaining a link with tradition while adapting to contemporary society. Shinto shrines are places of worship that house kami. They are often located in natural settings and are built in a specific architectural style. Shinto practitioners often use amulets and talismans called omamori for protection and good luck.
Harmony. Shinto places a strong emphasis on the importance of living in harmony with nature and the community. Kami, the spirits or deities in Shinto, often reside in natural elements like rocks, trees, rivers, and mountains, symbolizing the sacredness of nature. Shinto promotes the importance of community and social harmony. Festivals and ceremonies serve to bring communities together and strengthen social bonds.
Ancestry. Respect and reverence for ancestors are central to Shinto beliefs. Ancestors are often regarded as protective spirits who look after their descendants.
Interconnectedness. Shinto fosters a sense of interconnectedness among people, nature, and the spiritual realm. It encourages an awareness of the impact of one's actions on others and the environment.

While Shinto is primarily a religious tradition, it also encompasses a set of values, worldviews, and philosophical ideas that can be considered as part of Japanese philosophy. Shinto has been closely tied to the cultural and national identity of Japan. It has also influenced various aspects of Japanese culture, including art, literature, and philosophy.

While Shinto is a distinct religious tradition, it has coexisted and syncretized with other religions in Japan, most notably Buddhism. Many Japanese people practice both Shinto and Buddhism, with Shinto ceremonies often marking life's milestones (birth, marriage) and Buddhist ceremonies addressing death and the afterlife.

Today, Shinto continues to be an essential part of Japanese society, with millions of followers and over 80,000 shrines across Japan. In the modern world, Shinto is often seen as a spiritual and cultural tradition that provides a connection to the natural world and Japanese heritage.

Buddhism

Buddhism is a nontheistic religion and philosophical system that originated in India in the 6th century BCE, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who came to be known as the Buddha, or "the awakened one." Buddhism has a rich history and diverse set of teachings, practices, and traditions.

Key Buddhist concepts:

Detachment. Not getting attached to material possessions, relationships, emotions, thoughts...
Compassion. Wishing that others can be free of suffering.
Mindfulness. Developing awareness of how attention flows from one thing to another and a state of mind that is nonreactive, nonjudging, and non interfering with the constant change.
Interconnectedness. Everything is connected and nothing is in isolation with everything happening through connected interactions of various causes and conditions.
Impermanence. Everything changes and nothing lasts forever.

Key Teachings:

Four Noble Truths.

Suffering (Dukka) is inherent in human life.
The cause of suffering is desire (Tanha).
There is a way to end suffering.
The way to end suffering is by following the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path is a guide to eight steps to ethical and mental development that can free humans from attachments and delusions to achieve enlightenment:

Right Understanding
Right Intent
Right Speech
Right Action
Right Livelihood
Right Effort
Right Mindfulness
Right Concentration

Buddhism is traditionally divided into three main schools, each with its own interpretation of the teachings of the Buddha and its own set of practices and beliefs.

Theravada Buddhism: Emphasizes the importance of individual enlightenment and the cultivation of wisdom and ethical conduct through meditation and adherence to the Vinaya (monastic code of conduct).
Mahayana Buddhism: Emphasizes developing compassion and wisdom to help all beings attain enlightenment. Mahayana Buddhism also includes a wide range of philosophical schools and practices, including Zen and Pure Land Buddhism.
Vajrayana Buddhism: Emphasizes the use of ritual and esoteric practices to attain enlightenment. It is characterized by its focus on the tantric path, which involves the use of mantras, visualization, and other techniques to transform ordinary experience into a direct realization of enlightenment.

While all three schools of Buddhism share a common core of teachings and practices, there are significant differences in their interpretation of the Buddha's teachings, as well as in their emphasis on particular practices and beliefs.

In general, Buddhism incorporates the hindi concepts of Karma and reincarnation. Actions in this life will affect the circumstances of future lives. Circumstances today are related to karma from previous lives. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to attain Nirvana, a state of liberation and freedom from suffering. All that exist is of one absolute and non-relative reality that is beyond description and human comprehension. Human perception is an illusion like a mirage or flash; like a froth of liquid; or like a whiff of scent. The illusion comes from ignorance. Cultivation of the mind allows humans to perceive more of the truth in the path towards enlightenment.

Today, Buddhism has spread worldwide, with diverse schools and traditions. Modern Buddhism has adapted to various cultures and societies, and some forms of Buddhism have emerged that are specifically tailored to the needs and challenges of contemporary life. Take yoga, as an example.

Sikh Philosophy

Sikh philosophy is based on the teachings of Indian gurus from the 1400s through the 1700s. Sikh philosophy emphasizes the importance of living a truthful, compassionate, and humble life, and it seeks to promote social justice and equality.

Key principles of Sikh philosophy include:

Oneness of God: Sikhism is monotheistic and emphasizes the importance of recognizing the oneness of God. God is considered to be the creator of the universe, and is beyond human comprehension.
Equality: Sikhism teaches that all people are equal, regardless of their caste, religion, or gender. It promotes social justice and opposes any form of discrimination.
Selflessness and Service: Sikhs are encouraged to live a life of selflessness and to serve others. This is often expressed through the practice of Seva, which involves selfless service to the community.
Living a Truthful Life: Sikhs strive to live a truthful and honest life, and to practice integrity in all aspects of their lives.
Meditation and Remembrance of God: Sikhism emphasizes the importance of meditating on God's name (Naam Simran) as a means of connecting with the divine and attaining inner peace.
Importance of Community: The Sikh community, or Sangat, plays a central role in Sikhism. Sikhs are encouraged to participate in communal worship, and to support and learn from each other.
Acceptance of God's Will: Sikhs are taught to accept God's will, and to remain detached from material possessions and desires. This is known as the principle of Chardi Kala, which involves maintaining a positive and optimistic outlook, even in the face of adversity.

Overall, Sikh philosophy offers a unique and profound perspective on life, ethics, and spirituality. It emphasizes the importance of living a truthful, compassionate, and humble life, and promotes social justice and equality for all people.

Zen philosophy

Zen began as a branch of Mahayana Buddhism (prevalent in East Asia) that emphasizes the importance of meditation, direct experience, and intuition as the means to attain enlightenment. It originated in China as Chan Buddhism and later spread to Japan, where it evolved into Zen.

Key Concepts of Zen Philosophy:

Zazen (Seated Meditation): Central to Zen practice, zazen involves seated meditation, focusing on the breath, to cultivate mindfulness and presence.
Satori (Enlightenment): Satori refers to a sudden awakening or realization of the true nature of reality, leading to enlightenment.
Koan (Paradoxical Anecdote or Question): A koan is a paradoxical statement or question used in Zen practice to help break down rational thinking and foster direct insight.
Mushin (No-Mind): Mushin, or "no-mind," is a state of clear consciousness without fixation on emotions, thoughts, or actions (ETAs).
Kinhin (Walking Meditation):Kinhin is the practice of walking meditation, typically performed in between sessions of zazen.
Master-Disciple Relationship: The master helps guide the disciple on the path to enlightenment, often using koans and direct interactions to provoke insights.

Zen has significantly influenced various art forms, emphasizing simplicity, spontaneity, and naturalness.
Zen philosophy has been widely embraced in the West, with many people drawn to its teachings on mindfulness and living in the present moment. Zen philosophy is about direct experience, transcending the dualities and delusions that cloud human appreciation of true nature. Zen philosophy invites practitioners to let go of preconceived notions and biases to experience pure reality.

Daoism (Taoism)

Taoism, also spelled Daoism, is a philosophical and religious tradition that originated in ancient China in the 400s BCE. It is primarily attributed to the teachings of Laozi and the "Tao Te Ching," as well as the work of Zhuangzi. The term "Tao" or "Dao" (道) translates to "the way" or "the path," and Taoism emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, which is understood as the fundamental principle that is the source and pattern of everything in the universe.

Key Concepts of Taoism:

Tao (道) - The Way (or the Flow). The Tao is the ultimate principle that underlies and unifies all things in the universe. It is the source of everything and the flow that all things follow.
Wu Wei (无为) - Non-Action or Effortless Action. Wu Wei is the practice of acting in accordance with the natural flow of the Tao, without forcing or striving.
Yin and Yang (阴阳) - Duality. Yin and Yang represent the interdependent and complementary forces that exist in all aspects of life and the universe.
Qi (气) - Vital Energy. Qi (chi) is the life force or vital energy that flows through all living things and is essential to health and well-being.
Ziran (自然) - Spontaneity or Naturalness. Ziran is the concept of living in harmony with nature and being true to one's natural self.

Taoism encompasses a range of practices and beliefs aimed at achieving harmony with the Tao and attaining spiritual enlightenment, including:

Meditation and mindfulness.
Physical exercises and martial arts, such as Tai Chi and Qigong.
Traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture and herbal remedies.
Feng Shui, the practice of arranging the environment to enhance energy flow.

Taoism has profoundly influenced Chinese culture, philosophy, and religion, contributing to the development of Chinese art, literature, and science. It has also influenced other East Asian cultures, including Korea and Japan. Today, Taoism continues to be practiced by millions of people around the world, both as a religious tradition and as a philosophical approach to life.

Legalism

Legalism was a school of Chinese philosophy that emerged during the Warring States period (475-221 BCE). This was a 300 year period marked by wars between three major states wanting to control China. Legalism was characterized by a pragmatic approach to governance focused on strict law and order to maintain social harmony and state control. Legalism is often associated with the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) because it was the dominant ideology that helped Qin Shi Huang unify China.

Key Concepts of Legalism:

Law and Order. Legalists believed that strict laws and harsh punishments were necessary to control society. They advocated for a codified legal system where rules were written down and enforced consistently.
Authoritarian Rule. Legalists argued for a strong, centralized government led by an authoritarian ruler who had the power to enforce laws and maintain order.
Meritocracy. Legalists valued practical skills and abilities over noble birth or Confucian virtues. They supported the idea of appointing officials based on merit rather than hereditary status.
Collective Responsibility. Some Legalists proposed the idea of collective responsibility, where families or communities would be held accountable for the actions of individual members.

Legalism is often contrasted with Confucianism, which emphasized moral virtue and the cultivation of a benevolent ruler. While Confucianists believed in the inherent goodness of human nature and the importance of moral education, Legalists had a more pessimistic view of human nature, seeing people as inherently selfish and requiring strict laws to maintain order.

Legalism had a significant impact on Chinese history, particularly during the Qin Dynasty. Qin Shi Huang implemented Legalist policies to unify the various warring states under standard codified laws. These policies helped to create a centralized state, and were criticized for their harshness. The influence of Legalism declined after the fall of the Qin Dynasty, but its ideas have continued to shape Chinese legal and political thought to this date.

Ancient Greek Philosophy

Before Socrates, several philosophers in ancient Greece such as Thales, Anaximenes, and Anaximander were among the first to propose naturalistic (non mythological) explanations for the origins and structure of the natural world. Pythagoras contributed to the development of mathematical philosophy. Heraclitus proposed the idea of change as a fundamental aspect of the universe. Parmenides emphasized the concept of being and permanence.

The early Greek philosophers were often called cosmologists or naturalists. They focused on the natural origin of the physical world. They looked and examined things found in nature to explain the origins of life. Greek naturalistic philosophy was one of the first attempts to systematize thinking about the world inhabited by humans. Naturalistic philosophy holds that reality can be explained through nature and natural laws. It denies supernatural influence. This philosophical movement can be the most transcendental of all because it laid the foundation for modern science.

Classical Greek Philosophy

Socrates (c. 469-399 BCE). Socrates is known for his Socratic method, a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas. He focused on ethical questions and the examination of virtues.

Plato (c. 428-348 BCE), a student of Socrates, Plato founded the Academy and wrote numerous dialogues and letters. His works covered a range of topics, including the theory of forms, ethics, politics, and metaphysics.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE), a student of Plato, Aristotle founded the Lyceum. He made significant contributions to nearly every field of philosophy and science, including ethics, politics, metaphysics, epistemology, and biology.

Hellenistic Greek Philosophy

After the death of Aristotle, several schools of philosophy emerged in the Hellenistic period including epicureanism, stoicism, and skepticism.

Epicureanism

Epicureanism is a philosophical system based on the teachings of Epicurus, a Greek philosopher who lived from 341 BCE to 270 BCE. It emphasized the pursuit of pleasure (understood as tranquility and freedom from fear) as the highest good. "De Rerum Natura" (On the Nature of Things) is a long didactic poem that outlines the main themes of the philosophy: atomism (everything in the universe is composed of small particles called atoms); epistemology (a critique of superstition and religious fear, and a call for a scientific understanding of the world); psychology (exploration of human ethics, desires, fears, and the pursuit of pleasure); and metaphysics: (how the natural world worked).

Key Concepts of Epicureanism:

Peace. Peace of mind (ataraxia or tranquility) free from fears and desires was the greatest good and the ultimate goal of life. Epicureans distinguished between different types of pleasure, emphasizing long-term and sustainable pleasures such as the pursuit of knowledge over short-term or fleeting ones such as hedonistic physical pleasure.
Pleasure. Epicureans sought to minimize pain and suffering in life, both physical and mental.
Bonding. Epicureans placed a high value on interpersonal relationships as essential components of a meaningful life.
Materialism over Spiritualism. Epicureans asserted that everything in the universe is made of either matter (atoms) or empty space, without any gods, spirits, or any other supernatural forces.
Knowledge. Epicureans valued empirical observation and sensory experience as the primary sources of knowledge.

Epicureanism has had a profound impact on Western philosophy, influencing later philosophical movements such as utilitarianism, which also emphasizes absence of pain and suffering as the highest good. Its ideas can also be seen in modern secular humanism, which often shares Epicureanism's non-mythological or non-spiritual worldview and emphasis on human happiness.

Epicureanism is often misunderstood as a hedonistic philosophy indulging in sensual pleasures. In reality, Epicurus taught that the pursuit of physical pleasures often leads to pain and that the highest pleasure comes from a tranquil mind, free from fear and also free from desire.

Epicureanism remains relevant in contemporary discussions about the meaning of life, happiness, and the pursuit of well-being. Its emphasis on simple pleasures, friendship, and mental tranquility continues to resonate with many people seeking a balanced and fulfilling life.

Stoicism

Zeno of Citium, Cyprus is credited with originating the philosophy of Stoicism. Zeno was a wealthy merchant who lost everything when he was shipwrecked in Athens around 300 BCE. He became intrigued by reading about Socrates and sought out the city's noted philosophers. As he began educating his own students, he originated the philosophy of Stoicism.

Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and mental strength to overcome destructive emotions. It's a philosophy of personal ethics that seeks to increase positive emotions, reduce negative emotions, and help humans develop virtues to live well and flourish.

Stoicism teaches humans to:

Focus on what they can control, such as their emotions, thoughts, and actions (ETA).
Accept what they cannot control, such as the ETAs of others and the course of nature.
Take responsibility for their ETAs, which create their perception of reality.
Seek and practice virtue to live well and flourish ("eudaimonia").
Treat others as you they would like to be treated by them.

Skepticism

Pyrrhon of Elis is generally accepted as the father of skepticism. He was a Greek philosopher who lived from around 360 BC to 272 BC. Arcesilaus was the first Academic to adopt a position of philosophical skepticism. He was greatly influenced by Pyrrho and Timon.

Skepticism emphasizes the idea that humans can never have true knowledge about the nature of reality.

Skeptics question the possibility of knowledge in a particular domain or in general. They challenge the adequacy or reliability of knowledge claims by asking what principles they are based upon or what they actually establish. Skeptics argue that it is better to suspend belief than to rely on the dubitable products of human reason. They believe that even the best methods for humans to learn about the world fall short of perfect certainty.

Middle Eastern Philosophy

Jewish Philosophy

The Hebrew Bible contains philosophical insights on ethics and justice under one single god who was the creator of everything and the judge of humanity. Later Jewish philosophers, such as Philo of Alexandria, sought to reconcile Jewish religious teachings with Greek philosophy, introducing concepts like the logos (word of god) supposedly containing universal doctrine about "good" vs. "evil" derived from the mind of a "one and only" god, creator and ruler of the world, imposing religious and faithful order over unfaithful disorder and chaos.

Christian Philosophy

Christian philosophy is a term that encompasses a wide range of philosophical ideas that are informed by or in alignment with Christian theology. The history of Christian philosophy is deeply entwined with the history of Western philosophy and theology, and it has played a significant role in shaping Western culture and thought.

Key Features of Christian Philosophy:

Mythology. Theological doctrines, such as the existence of God, the divinity of Jesus Christ, and the teachings of the Bible, are central to Christian philosophy. Christianity explores the nature of God, the soul, and the afterlife.
Ethics. Christian ethics emphasizes the moral teachings of Jesus, such as love, compassion, and forgiveness.
Faith and Reason. The relationship between faith and reason is a central concern and source of debate within Christian philosophy.
Persistence of Evil. The prevalence of suffering in the world despite the sacrifice of the Christ for humal salvation is a philosophical challenge. Different interpretations of the Bible can lead to varying philosophical and theological conclusions.

Islamic Philosophy

Islamic philosophy represents a diverse tradition of philosophical thought that has emerged within the Islamic world over centuries. This tradition reflects a rich blend of Greek, Persian, Indian, and other ancient philosophies with Islamic teachings. Sufism, a mystical Islamic tradition, introduced concepts such as unity of being and the importance of personal experience in understanding the divine.

Islamic philosophy, or falsafa, emerged in the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries) and was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, especially the works of Aristotle and Plato. Prominent Islamic philosophers include Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), and Averroes (Ibn Rushd), who contributed to the development of metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.

Metaphysics: Islamic philosophers delved deeply into questions about the nature of existence, reality, and the relationship between humans and the "one and only" god of the desert (same one of the Hebrew tradition).
Epistemology: questions related to knowledge, reason, and revelation. Notable in this field is the debate between rationalists (like Avicenna) and traditionalists (like Al-Ghazali) on the roles of reason and faith in acquiring knowledge.
Ethics: Islamic philosophy covers moral principles and ethics, often derived from religious texts and Islamic law. Islamic philosophers also discussed issues related to governance, justice, and the ideal state, often within the context of politics and Islamic law.

Islamic philosophy played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting Greek philosophical texts during the Middle Ages. Many works of Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Plato were translated into Arabic, commented upon by Islamic philosophers, and then later translated into Latin, influencing medieval European philosophy.

Sample Indigenous Philosophies

Mesoamerican Philosophy

Mesoamerican philosophy is the philosophy developed by the civilizations of ancient Mesoamerica, which includes the Aztec, Maya, and other indigenous cultures. While the specific beliefs and practices varied among these civilizations, there are some common themes and ideas that can be identified as part of Mesoamerican philosophy.

Key Concepts in Mesoamerican Philosophy:

Duality: Mesoamerican thought often incorporates a concept of duality, where opposites are interconnected and interdependent, such as life and death, day and night, and the earthly realm and the spiritual realm.
Cycle of Time: Many Mesoamerican cultures believed in a cyclical concept of time, where history and events repeat in cycles. This idea is evident in their calendars and prophecies.
Mythology. Mesoamerican civilizations had complex cosmologies that explained the creation of the world and the structure of the universe. These myths often involved multiple realms or layers of existence, with human beings living in a middle realm between the heavens and the underworld.
Interconnectedness. Mesoamerican philosophy often emphasized the importance of living in harmony with nature, the community, and the gods. Discipline and ethics were seen as essential to maintaining balance and order in society. Human sacrifice was a common practice in Mesoamerican cultures, often seen as a way to maintain balance and reciprocity with the gods and the natural world.
Knowledge and Wisdom: Mesoamerican cultures valued knowledge and wisdom, and they developed complex systems of writing, mathematics, and astronomy. The pursuit of knowledge was often seen as a spiritual practice connecting humans with the gods and supernatural forces.

Mesoamerican philosophy has been studied and interpreted by scholars, anthropologists, and indigenous communities in modern times. Some contemporary indigenous people in Mexico and Central America continue to practice and preserve the philosophical traditions of their ancestors. In addition, Mesoamerican philosophy has contributed to the broader field of indigenous philosophy and has been a source of inspiration for various modern philosophical movements.

Native American Philosophy

Native American philosophy encompasses a diverse range of beliefs, values, and worldviews held by the indigenous peoples of North America. These philosophies are deeply connected to the land, nature, and the spiritual world, and they often emphasize the interconnectedness of all life, the importance of balance and harmony, and the value of community and family.

Key Features of Native American Philosophy:

Mythology. A strong connection with the beliefs in a spiritual world, often involving supernatural powers, spirits, and ancestors.
Interconnectedness. The belief that all living beings and elements of nature are interconnected and interdependent. Includes considering the impact of current actions on future generations.
Harmony. A focus on living in harmony and balance with nature, other people, and oneself. A deep respect for nature and a commitment to protecting the environment.

Native American philosophy continues to be a vital aspect of indigenous cultures and provides valuable insights into alternative ways of understanding and relating to the world.

Sub-Saharan African philosophies

This category encompass a diverse range of beliefs, values, and traditions that have developed over millennia across the African continent. African philosophy is characterized by a strong emphasis on community and the interconnectedness of all aspects of existence.

Communalism:African philosophies often emphasize the importance of community and the collective over the individual. Interpersonal relationships, social harmony, and mutual support are central to African worldviews. For example, Ubuntu is a philosophical concept from Southern Africa that translates to "I am because we are." It emphasizes the interconnectedness of all people and the importance of compassion, empathy, and human dignity.
Mythology. Traditional African mythologies often involve a complex web of interconnected forces and beings, including gods, spirits, and ancestors. The spiritual realm is seen as closely intertwined with the physical world. Traditional African religions often involve a strong spiritual connection to ancestors, nature, and the divine.
Ethical Systems:African philosophies often have rich ethical systems that guide moral conduct and social behavior. These systems are often based on principles such as reciprocity, harmony, and balance.

There is a growing interest in documenting, studying, and preserving African philosophical traditions.

Norse and Germanic Philosophy

Norse philosophy encompasses the beliefs, values, and wisdom of the Norse people, mainly encompassing the Germanic tribes that inhabited Scandinavia during the Viking Age (approximately 793 to 1066 AD). Germanic philosophy refers to the beliefs, values, and worldviews of the ancient Germanic people, which includes a range of tribes such as the Goths, Vandals, Saxons, and more. The Germanic tribes inhabited various regions in Europe, including Scandinavia, Germany, and parts of the British Isles.

Due to the lack of written records from these ancient Norse and Germanic tribes, much of what is believed to be known about their beliefs and philosophies of life comes from later sources, including Roman authors, and medieval texts such as the Icelandic sagas and Eddas capturing folk oral traditions.

Key Aspects of Norse Philosophy:

Interconnectedness. Norse mythology included many worlds, gods, spirits, and other supernatural creatures. The world was understood to be centered around the World Tree, Yggdrasil, connecting realms inhabited by gods, giants, humans, and other beings. The Norse believed in a spiritual interconnectedness between humans, gods, and nature.
Fate: Wyrd is a Norse concept often translated as fate or destiny. Norse philosophy believed that humans were influenced by their wyrd, which was a complex interweaving of past, present, and future events.
Virtues and Ethics: The Norse valued virtues such as courage, honor, loyalty, and wisdom. The Hávamál ("Sayings of the High One"), a collection of poems in the Poetic Edda, contains advice and wisdom related to these virtues.

Sample South Asian Philosophy

Polynesian Philosophy

Polynesian philosophies are a collection of beliefs and worldviews that are native to the Polynesian people, who inhabit a large area of the Pacific Ocean known as Polynesia. These philosophies are deeply intertwined with the cultures, languages, and traditions of the Polynesian people, and reflect their unique way of understanding and interpreting the world.

Some key aspects of Polynesian philosophies include:

Connection to the land and nature: Polynesian philosophies often emphasize the importance of the natural environment and the close relationship between humans and the land. This includes a strong emphasis on sustainability and living in harmony with nature.
Ancestor worship: Many Polynesian cultures believe in the importance of ancestors and their role in shaping the present and future. Ancestors are often considered to be present in the landscape, and are revered and honored through various cultural practices.
Spirituality: Polynesian philosophies often include a strong spiritual component, with beliefs in gods, spirits, and other supernatural beings. These beings are believed to play an important role in shaping the world and human existence.
Values: Polynesian cultures often emphasize values such as reciprocity, respect, family, and community. These values are considered to be central to a good and fulfilling life.Overall, Polynesian philosophies are diverse and complex, reflecting the rich cultural heritage and unique way of life of the Polynesian people. They offer valuable insights into the ways in which humans can live in harmony with nature, honor their ancestors, and live according to important cultural values.

Indonesian Philosophy

Indonesia, with its diverse cultures and traditions, has a rich philosophical heritage that draws from indigenous wisdom, religious beliefs, and historical experiences. Some key Indonesian philosophies include:

Pancasila. Modern unifying philosophy of Indonesia consisting of five principles:

Monotheism. One and only God
Civility. Just and civilized humanity
Unity. The unity of Indonesia
Democracy. Wise consensus from deliberations amongst representatives
Justice. Social justice for the whole of the people of Indonesia.

Bhinneka Tunggal Ika. "Unity in Diversity", national motto of Indonesia reflecting the idea that despite the diverse cultures, religions, and languages in Indonesia, the nation is united as one.
Gotong Royong. Traditional philosophy that emphasizes communal cooperation and mutual assistance. It is a fundamental part of Indonesian culture and is often seen in communal activities, such as building houses or preparing for festivals.
Tri Hita Karana. Traditional Balinese Hindu philosophy that emphasizes the importance of maintaining balance and harmony between humans, nature, and the gods. It is a fundamental part of Balinese culture and is reflected in their religious rituals, social practices, and traditional architecture.
Javanese Philosophy: Traditional Javanese philosophy that draws from indigenous wisdom, Hindu-Buddhist influences, and Islamic teachings. Some key concepts in Javanese philosophy include the idea of rasa (feeling or sentiment), the importance of harmony and balance, and the ethical role of the individual in the collective of society.

Overall, Indonesian philosophies are diverse and complex, reflecting the rich cultural and religious heritage of the country. They offer valuable insights into the ways in which people can live harmoniously with nature, connect with the divine, and build a just and equitable society.

Filipino Philosophy

Filipino philosophy is not commonly defined in the same manner as Western philosophical traditions, as it is deeply embedded in the cultural and social fabric of Filipino life. Rather than a set of distinct philosophical texts, Filipino philosophy often emerges from the country's history, indigenous beliefs, colonial experiences, and the subsequent synthesis of Eastern and Western thought.

Here are some components that may be considered under the umbrella of Filipino philosophy:

Bayanihan Spirit: This is the spirit of communal unity, work, and cooperation to achieve a particular goal. The term originates from the traditional practice where neighbors would help a relocating family by literally carrying their house to a new location. Philosophically, this reflects a sense of community and collective responsibility.
Pakikisama: This is the value of smooth interpersonal relationships, characterized by the ability to get along well with others to maintain harmony and avoid conflict. It emphasizes group solidarity and often involves a level of personal sacrifice or setting aside one’s own feelings for the good of the group. A tendency to understand and relate to the world in a highly personal way, often valuing personal relationships over impersonal structures or systems.
Utang na Loob (Debt of Gratitude): A deeply ingrained sense of gratitude and indebtedness to those who have helped one, which involves moral obligations to repay the person in some way. This can shape interactions and is an important element in understanding Filipino social relationships.
Hiya (Shame): This concept pertains to a sense of propriety and awareness of social norms, and it regulates behavior to avoid embarrassment or to maintain honor in the eyes of the community.
Kapwa (Shared Identity): A core concept in Filipino psychology, where there is an acknowledgment of a shared identity with others. It implies a deep connection and a shared sense of being which transcends the self.
Colonial Mentality: This is a critical view that stems from the historical experience of colonization (by Spain for over 300 years and by the United States for about 50 years). It critiques the tendency to see foreign cultures, particularly Western ones, as inherently superior to local culture.

The discourse on Filipino philosophy continues to evolve as Filipino scholars engage with both local cultural contexts and global philosophical trends. There is an ongoing effort to further define and develop a distinctly Filipino philosophy that acknowledges the country’s unique experiences and worldview.

Western Religious Philosophy

Catholicism

Catholic philosophy refers to the philosophical dimensions of Catholic thought that are influenced by the intellectual tradition of the Roman Catholic Church. This tradition is deeply intertwined with Christianity and is a fusion of early Christian theology with classical philosophy, especially the works of Plato and Aristotle.

Catholic philosophy has been a major force in shaping Western thought and has developed over centuries with contributions from theologians, philosophers, and scholars. Here are some key aspects of Catholic philosophy:

Scholasticism: This is perhaps the most influential school of Catholic philosophy, which sought to reconcile faith with reason and the work of classical philosophers with Christian theology. St. Thomas Aquinas, a key figure in scholasticism, used Aristotelian philosophy to develop a comprehensive theological and philosophical system.
Natural Law: A significant concept in Catholic philosophy is that of natural law, which posits that there are universal moral principles inherent in human nature and discoverable by human reason. This forms the basis for much of Catholic ethics and legal philosophy.
Faith and Reason: Catholic philosophy often emphasizes the compatibility and complementary nature of faith and reason. While faith is considered a divine gift and a means to understand divine truths, reason is seen as a natural human capacity that can lead to truth, including truths about God.
Existence of God: Classical Catholic philosophy presents various arguments for the existence of God, such as the Five Ways of Aquinas, which include arguments from motion, causation, contingency, perfection, and governance (or order).
Human Dignity: Stemming from the belief that humans are created in the image of God, there is a strong emphasis on the inherent dignity and worth of the human person. This underpins many Catholic social teachings on human rights, justice, and the common good.
The Role of the Church: The Catholic Church is seen as a repository of divine truth and wisdom, with its traditions and teachings providing guidance on philosophical inquiries as well as moral and spiritual matters.
The Sacramental View of Reality: In Catholic thought, material reality is imbued with spiritual significance. This is exemplified in the sacraments of the Church, which are outward signs of inward grace.
Virtue Ethics: Many Catholic philosophers have adopted and adapted Aristotelian virtue ethics, emphasizing the development of virtuous character traits as the path to human flourishing and the good life.
Social and Political Philosophy: Catholic social teaching emphasizes the importance of social justice, the dignity of work, the rights of workers, and the need for a just society. This has influenced various political and economic theories and practices.

Catholic philosophy remains a dynamic field, engaging with contemporary issues while remaining rooted in its rich intellectual tradition. It addresses modern philosophical debates, ethics, the challenges posed by science and technology, and the dialogue with other religious and secular philosophies.

Protestant Philosophy

The philosophy that underpins Protestant thought is a reflection of the principles and values of the Protestant Reformation, which began in the 16th century. While there is no single "Protestant philosophy" due to the diverse traditions within Protestantism, there are several key theological principles and philosophical attitudes that have influenced Protestant thinkers:

Sola Scriptura (Scripture Alone): This principle asserts that the Bible is the supreme authority in all matters of doctrine and practice. Protestant philosophy often emphasizes the importance of individual interpretation of the Scriptures, as opposed to reliance on the authority of the Church.
Sola Fide (Faith Alone): Another central tenet is that salvation is achieved through faith alone, not by works or human effort. This led to a focus on the personal relationship with God and the inner experience of faith.
Priesthood of All Believers: Protestantism promotes the idea that every believer has direct access to God without the need for a mediating priesthood, which decentralizes religious authority and emphasizes individual conscience and responsibility.
Justification by Faith: A key philosophical and theological doctrine in Protestantism is the notion that humans are justified, or made righteous, before God by faith in Christ, rather than by any merit of their own.
The Sovereignty of God: Many Protestant traditions emphasize the sovereignty and omnipotence of God, particularly in Calvinist thought, which includes doctrines like predestination.
The Nature of the Church: Protestants generally believe in the "invisible church," which is composed of all true believers, in contrast to the "visible church," which consists of the institutionalized church and its members.
Personal Morality and Social Ethics: Protestant ethics often stress personal morality guided by one's understanding of Scripture and the leading of the Holy Spirit. There has also been a strong tradition of engaging with social issues based on principles derived from Biblical teachings.
Civic Duty and Secular Authority: Many Protestant thinkers have also engaged with questions of governance and the relationship between the church and state. Luther's doctrine of the "Two Kingdoms" and Calvin's teachings on the role of Christians in society have been influential in shaping Protestant views on these matters.
Individualism and Subjectivity: Protestantism's emphasis on personal faith and interpretation of scripture has contributed to a philosophical culture of individualism and has influenced the development of modern notions of subjectivity and autonomy.
Work Ethic: Max Weber famously linked Protestantism with the development of capitalism in his work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism." He argued that certain Protestant values, such as hard work, frugality, and diligence, were conducive to economic success and helped shape the capitalist system.

Protestant philosophy is not monolithic and there is a vast spectrum of belief systems and theological interpretations among the various Protestant denominations. Over time, this diversity has produced a vast array of theological and philosophical literature that continues to influence discussions on ethics, social justice, and the role of religion in the modern world.

Evangelical Philosophy

American evangelical philosophy is rooted in a specific Protestant tradition that emphasizes the importance of a personal experience of salvation, the authority of the Bible, and the need for individual conversion. While not monolithic, American evangelicalism is characterized by a set of core beliefs that shape its philosophical outlook. Here are some key aspects:

Biblical Inerrancy: Many American evangelicals hold to the belief that the Bible is without error in its original manuscripts and is the ultimate authority for faith and life. This belief in inerrancy often shapes their approach to scientific, historical, and moral questions.
Conversionism: The belief that lives need to be transformed through a “born-again” experience and a life-long process of following Jesus is central. This emphasizes personal conversion, a definitive, personal decision to accept Jesus Christ as one's savior.
Evangelism: There is a strong focus on the importance of sharing the Christian faith with others, motivated by the belief in the necessity of accepting Christ for salvation and the desire to fulfill the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19-20).
Activism: This involves a commitment to engaging in various forms of outreach and social action. Evangelicals have historically been involved in issues such as the abolition of slavery, the temperance movement, and contemporary pro-life activities.
Crucicentrism: A stress on the atoning work of Christ on the cross. Evangelicals believe that Jesus’ death and resurrection are the central events of human history and the foundation of God’s plan for salvation.
Individualism: American evangelical philosophy often emphasizes personal responsibility and individual moral accountability before God. This can shape views on social and economic issues, emphasizing personal charity and community involvement.
Moral Absolutism: Many evangelicals adhere to the belief in absolute moral truths as dictated by the Bible, which often results in conservative social values and a commitment to traditional roles.
Eschatological Urgency: There is often an emphasis on eschatology, or the study of the end times, with a belief in the imminent return of Jesus Christ. This belief can infuse a sense of urgency in evangelism and social action.
Political Engagement: In the latter half of the 20th century, American evangelicals became increasingly politically active, often around issues like abortion, same-sex marriage, and religious freedom. The philosophy here involves applying Biblical principles to inform political stances and societal norms.
Cultural Transformation: Many evangelicals believe in the transformative power of the Gospel to change culture and often engage in efforts to promote a Christian worldview in public life and legislation.
Prosperity: Many evangelicals adhere to the prosperity gospel, a theologically conservative movement emphasizing that believers can overcome poverty and illness through devotion and positive confession. The prosperity gospel teaches that wealth is a sign of virtue and God's favor.

The philosophy of American evangelicals can vary widely based on their interpretation of scripture, theological traditions, and individual congregations. Moreover, there are ongoing debates within evangelicalism about its direction, its engagement with politics, and how it should respond to contemporary social and moral issues.

Western Modern Philosophies

Rationalism

Rationalism is a philosophical movement that began in the mid 1700s. It emphasizes the role of reason in understanding the world and acquiring knowledge. Rationalists believe that reason is the primary source of knowledge and is superior to experience or sensory perception. They argue that there are certain fundamental truths or principles that can be known through reason alone, without the need for empirical evidence.

Key aspects of rationalism include:

Innate Ideas: Rationalists often believe in the existence of innate ideas, which are concepts or principles that are present in the mind from birth, rather than being acquired through experience.
Deductive Reasoning: Rationalists often rely on deductive reasoning, which involves starting with general principles and deriving specific conclusions from them.
Necessity and Certainty: Rationalists argue that there are certain truths or principles that are necessarily true and can be known with certainty through reason.
Independence from Empirical Evidence: Rationalists argue that knowledge can be acquired independently of sensory experience or empirical evidence.

Prominent rationalist philosophers include René Descartes, who famously argued that the existence of the self as a thinking being can be known with certainty through reason alone, as expressed in his famous statement, "I think, therefore I am."

Rationalism has had a significant impact on various fields, including mathematics, science, and metaphysics. It has also been influential in the development of other philosophical movements, such as empiricism and idealism.

Empiricism

Empiricism is a philosophical approach of the mid 1700s serving as counterargument to rationalism. It emphasizes the role of sensory experience and empirical evidence in the acquisition of knowledge. Empiricists argue that all knowledge is derived from sense experience and that there are no innate ideas or concepts that exist independently of experience.

Key features of empiricism include:

Sensory Experience: Empiricists believe that all knowledge originates from sensory experience, which provides the raw data from which we derive our understanding of the world.
Inductive Reasoning: Empiricists often rely on inductive reasoning, which involves making generalizations based on specific observations.
Skepticism of Innate Ideas: Empiricists are skeptical of the idea that there are innate ideas or concepts that exist independently of experience. They argue that all ideas and concepts are derived from experience.
Empirical Evidence: Empiricists emphasize the importance of empirical evidence in the acquisition of knowledge. They believe that knowledge should be based on observable and measurable phenomena.

Notable empiricist philosophers include John Locke, who famously argued that the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth and that all knowledge is acquired through experience.

Empiricism has been influential in the development of various fields, including science, psychology, and philosophy. It has also played a crucial role in the development of the scientific method, which relies on observation and experimentation to gain knowledge about the world.

Esotericism

Esotericism is a term used to describe a range of spiritual, religious, and philosophical beliefs and practices that are not widely known or understood by the mainstream but are instead said to be secret or hidden knowledge accessible only to the initiated or those who have undertaken specific practices or rituals to understand these deeper truths.

The philosophy of esotericism encompasses a wide variety of secret or "inner traditions" across different cultures and eras. It often involves a search for a deeper spiritual and exclusive knowledge than that offered by exoteric or mainstream religious practices of the masses.

Key features and concepts often associated with esoteric philosophy:

Initiation. Esoteric traditions typically emphasize the importance of an initiatory process in which secret knowledge is gradually imparted or acquired through esoteric practices.
Universalism. The belief in a single, underlying and foundational truth amidst all different religious and philosophical traditions.
Symbolism: Secret symbols and exclusive allegories to convey the "truths" that are said to be difficult or impossible to express in plain language.
Mysticism. Many esoteric systems are mystical in nature, focusing on personal spiritual enlightenment or transformation through direct experience or realization of ultimate reality.
Correspondence. A belief that different levels of reality mirror or correspond with each other. "As above, so below," suggesting that understanding one level of reality provides insight into another.
Gnosticism: This ancient movement, which existed alongside early Christianity, embodies many esoteric themes, such as the belief in hidden knowledge (gnosis) about the divine and the cosmos, accessible to only a select few.

Esoteric philosophies have been subject to skepticism and often viewed with suspicion by mainstream religious institutions because they challenge orthodox beliefs and social norms. Additionally, because esoteric teachings are by nature secretive, they have been prone to misunderstandings and sometimes mischaracterizations.

Idealism

Idealism is a philosophical approach of the late 1700s. It emphasizes the central role of ideas, mind, or consciousness in understanding and interpreting the world. Idealists hold that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual in nature, and that the material world is either dependent on the mind or is an illusion.

There are several different forms of idealism, including:

Subjective Idealism: This form of idealism, associated with philosophers such as George Berkeley, holds that only minds and their ideas exist. The material world is an illusion or is dependent on the perception of minds.
Objective Idealism: This form of idealism, associated with philosophers such as G.W.F. Hegel, holds that there is an objective reality, but that it is fundamentally mental or spiritual in nature.
Transcendental Idealism: This form of idealism, associated with Immanuel Kant, holds that our knowledge of the world is shaped by our mental faculties and that we can never know the world as it is in itself, independent of our perception.
Absolute Idealism: This form of idealism, also associated with Hegel, holds that reality is a unified whole that is fundamentally mental or spiritual in nature. The material world is an expression of this absolute reality.

Idealism has been an important philosophical tradition that has shaped various fields, including metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. It has also influenced the development of other philosophical movements, such as existentialism and phenomenology.

Realism

Realism, in the broadest sense, is a philosophical position that asserts the existence of a reality independent of observers' perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or linguistic practices. There are several varieties of realism in philosophy, each with a different focus and set of arguments. Here are a few of the main types:

Metaphysical Realism: Also known as ontological realism, this view maintains that there is a reality that exists independently of human conceptual structures. Humans structure subjective concepts, which are different from the objective reality that is independent of human thought.
Epistemological Realism. Belief that humans can have knowledge of the world as it really is. It opposes skepticism about the external world and is often associated with the belief that the sciences provide such knowledge.
Scientific Realism: This is the position that the aim of science is to describe and explain the nature of the world, including unobservable phenomena. Scientific realists hold that scientific theories are true or false to the extent that they accurately describe this reality. They typically believe that successful theories are at least approximately true representations of the underlying reality.
Moral Realism: In ethics, moral realism is the position that ethical statements refer to objective features of the world. This means that moral facts exist and are independent of our perception of them or our stances, feelings, etc., about them.
Aesthetic Realism: Similar to moral realism, aesthetic realism is the belief that there are objective standards of beauty, meaning that certain things are beautiful regardless of our individual or cultural preferences.
Direct Realism (also called Naïve Realism or Common Sense Realism): This is the view that the world is more or less as we perceive it to be. Our sensory perceptions are understood to be direct experiences of objects as they really are.
Critical Realism: This is a philosophical approach to understanding science that combines a general philosophy of science (scientific realism) with a philosophy of social science. It asserts the existence of an objective reality that science can study and gradually know, but also recognizes the complexity of the social world.
Legal Realism: In jurisprudence, legal realism is the theory that the law is not a set of given data, as it might be in statutes or case law, but what judges can be observed to do when they adjudicate.

In contrast to realism is idealism, which posits that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial. Realism can also be contrasted with anti-realism, which is any position involving either the denial of an objective reality or the denial that verification-transcendent statements about a reality beyond the empirical are meaningful.

Realism, in various forms, has been a central topic throughout the history of philosophy, from ancient to modern times. It has been vigorously debated in the context of the philosophy of science, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, and the philosophy of law.

Positivism

Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that certain ("positive") knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations as verified by the empirical sciences. It was developed by Auguste Comte, who is often considered the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.

Comte believed that human thought progresses in three stages:

the theological (religious belief and the idea of a supernatural order),
the metaphysical (abstract philosophical speculation), and
finally, the positive (scientific understanding).

Here are the main tenets of positivism:

Empirical Verification: Positivism emphasizes that only knowledge that can be observed and measured empirically (by the senses) is valid. This leads to an emphasis on the scientific method as the way to establish facts and laws about the world.
Rejection of Metaphysics: Comte and other positivists rejected metaphysical speculation as a valid form of inquiry or a source of knowledge. For them, metaphysical questions are unanswerable because they go beyond what can be empirically verified.
The Hierarchical Organization of the Sciences: Comte also proposed a hierarchy of the sciences, beginning with mathematics at the base, followed by astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and, at the top, sociology. Each science depended on the principles and laws of the sciences below it, but at the same time, each provided more complex and higher-level laws than those below.
Progress Through Science and Technology: Positivists often believe that the application of scientific knowledge and the advancement of technology will inevitably lead to progress in society.
Law of Three Stages: According to Comte, society as a whole, and the human mind individually, develop through three stages: theological (mythical explanations), metaphysical (abstract but not empirical reasoning), and positive (knowledge based on empirical observation).
Value-Free Inquiry: Positivism advocates for an objective, value-free approach to knowledge and science, free from personal biases and emotions.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, positivism was influential in the development of social sciences and had a major impact on the development of academic psychology. Logical positivism, a later movement that emerged in the early 20th century, built upon Comte's ideas. It pushed for the verification principle as a means of demarcating meaningful statements from metaphysical or nonsensical ones.

However, positivism has been critiqued for being too narrow in its definition of what constitutes valid knowledge. Critics argue that it dismisses the role of the unobservable or the unmeasurable, such as emotions, consciousness, and other subjective experiences, which are also important aspects of human life and thus, worthy of study. Furthermore, the claim of value-free inquiry has been challenged, particularly in the social sciences, where it is often argued that research cannot be separated from the values and biases of the researchers.

Despite these criticisms, positivism remains an important foundational approach in the philosophy of science and has significantly influenced the development of empirical research methodologies across numerous disciplines.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the study of conscious experience from the first-person perspective. It seeks to describe and understand the structures and processes of consciousness, as well as the ways in which consciousness is directed towards objects in the world. Phenomenologists believe that a careful examination of subjective experiences can reveal the essential features of consciousness and provide insights into the nature of reality.

Key features of phenomenology include:

Intentionality: Phenomenologists argue that consciousness is always directed towards something, whether it be an object, a thought, or a feeling. This directedness of consciousness is referred to as intentionality.
Epoché: Phenomenologists practice a method called epoché, which involves suspending judgment and setting aside beliefs and assumptions in order to describe experiences as they are given in consciousness.
Description: Phenomenologists seek to provide detailed and accurate descriptions of subjective experiences, without relying on theoretical explanations or interpretations.
Eidetic Reduction: Phenomenologists use a method called eidetic reduction to identify the essential structures and features of consciousness. This involves varying the content of experiences in imagination and identifying the invariant features that remain constant.

Phenomenology has been influential in various fields, including psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and literature. It has also influenced other philosophical movements, such as existentialism and post-structuralism.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, focusing on the individual, freedom of choice, and subjectivity. It is often associated with the exploration of existential angst and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent or even hostile universe.

Key Concepts of Existentialism:

Existential Essence. The idea that humans define their own essence through their actions, choices, and experiences.
Freedom of choice. Existentialism emphasizes the importance of personal freedom to choose their own destinies, be authentic in living in accordance with their own values and beliefs without falling for the pressures of social conformity, and bearing responsibility for their own choices.
Angst. Existentialism explores the feelings of angst, despair, and absurdity that can arise from confronting the complexities of human existence and the lack of inherent meaning in the world. There is no inherent meaning or purpose in the universe. Human beings must create their own meaning.
Death. Existentialists often grapple with the reality of death and the void of nothingness that it represents, using this as a basis for exploring the meaning of life.

Existentialism has had a profound impact on various fields, including literature, psychology, and theology, and continues to be a subject of study and discussion in philosophy today.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a philosophy that posits the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or pleasure. It was developed in the 19th century.

Key Features of Utilitarianism:

Greatest Happiness Principle. The primary objective of human existence is to maximize happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people.
Impartial Equality. Every human is equal under the principle. The happiness of one has the same value than the happiness of another human. The happiness of each human should be considered impartially.
Consequentialism. The morality of an action should be judged solely by its consequences.

Focus point of different perspectives of utilitarianism:

Action. An action is morally right if it produces the greatest overall happiness.
Rule. A rule is morally right if it produces the greatest overall happiness.

Critics of utilitaranism point out that since happiness is subjective it is hard to quantify it and hard to predict the expected value of an action or rule. The philosophy creates the potential to justify violating individual rights if it results in greater collective happiness. A survival of the happiest mindset can fail addressing fairness and equity.

Perennialism

Perennialism in philosophy refers to the perspective that there is a perennial or universal truth that underlies the world's religious traditions and philosophies, which is the source of all spiritual knowledge and a constant throughout human history.

Here are some key aspects of perennial philosophy:

Universal Truth: Perennialism posits that there is a single, universal truth or reality at the core of all religious philosophies, whether these are called God, Brahman, the Tao, the Absolute, the Ground of Being, etc.
Primacy of Spiritual Knowledge: The perennial philosophy holds that spiritual knowledge and experience are the highest forms of knowing, transcending empirical or rational knowledge.
Core Teachings: Despite the diversity of religious practices and beliefs, perennialists argue that there are core teachings about reality, humanity, and the divine that are shared by all humans.
Direct Experience: Perennialism often emphasizes the importance of direct, mystical, or esoteric experience as a means of accessing ultimate reality or truth, rather than through dogma or institutionalized religion.
Sympathetic Readings: Proponents of perennialism typically approach the world’s spiritual traditions with a sympathetic and inclusive mindset, looking for underlying similarities rather than focusing on differences.
Critique of Modernity: Perennialism is often critical of the materialism, reductionism, and relativism perceived in much of modern philosophy and life, advocating for a return to the insights of traditional wisdom.

Critics of perennialism argue that it oversimplifies the differences between religious traditions and can be interpreted as co-opting or devaluing the unique historical and cultural contexts of individual religions. There is also a critique that it imposes a kind of universalism that is itself a product of Western esotericism and not truly representative of the diverse ways humans understand the sacred. Despite these critiques, perennialism continues to influence spiritual and philosophical discussions, particularly in the realms of interfaith dialogue and the study of mysticism.

Humanism

Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively. It prefers critical thinking and evidence over acceptance of dogma or superstition.

Key Features of Humanism:

Human rights. Human beings are seen as inherently valuable and capable of rational thought and self-improvement. Humanism advocates for the promotion and protection of human rights and individual freedoms.
Secularism. Rejection of religious dogma and mythology.
Critical Thinking. Emphasizes the importance of evidence-based reason and scientific inquiry.
Ethics. Humanism often advocates for a moral system based on human values and principles, rather than mythological ones imposed by religious authorities.

Critics argue that humanism can be too subjective and lacks a clear, objective moral foundation. Humanism often conflicts with religious doctrines, leading to tensions between secular and religious communities. Humanism has had a significant impact on various fields and continues to be a relevant and influential worldview in contemporary society.

Pragmatism

Philosophical movement that originated in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was the first fully North American philosophical movement. Pragmatism originated in the 1870s but became popular in the early 20th century.

Pragmatism is based on the principle that ideas and philosophies should be judged based on their usefulness, workability, and practicality. The main idea of pragmatism is that practical matters have a bearing on the philosophical questions people should ask and the answers they should seek.

Reconstructionism

Reconstructionism, when discussed within the context of philosophy, often refers to a branch of pragmatism, particularly associated with the American philosopher John Dewey. As an educational philosophy, it is sometimes termed "social reconstructionism." This philosophy extends beyond the classroom, proposing that education should not only use a critical examination of the world but also be an instrument for reconstructing society to address social and ecological injustices.

Key elements:

Critical Examination: Reconstructionism holds that every aspect of a society should be subject to critique and examination. This critical approach is applied to issues like inequality, social justice, and democracy.

Education. Reconstructionism argues that schools should not merely convey knowledge but should also take an active role in reconstructing society making students agents of change. Reconstructionists often stress moral development of students over strict academic skills. They believe education should foster a commitment to community and civic responsibility.
Global Perspective: Modern Reconstructionists emphasize the importance of understanding global interdependencies and advocate for education that prepares students to think globally and act locally, recognizing their responsibilities as global citizens.
Agentive View of the Learner: Students are seen as agents of change, not just passive recipients of knowledge. The education system, according to Reconstructionism, should empower students to take active roles in their own learning and in the shaping of society.

Reconstructionism, as a philosophy of education, was particularly influential in the mid-20th century, and though it is less talked about today in its original form, its principles still influence critical pedagogy and service learning in modern educational practices. The idea that education is a means to address social ills and can be a method for social change persists in many educational reforms and discussions on the purpose of education in society.

Cosmopolitanism

Cosmopolitanism is a philosophy that suggests all human beings, irrespective of their political affiliation, are (or can and should be) citizens of a single community. Different versions and strands of cosmopolitanism envision this community in various ways, often emphasizing the shared experiences, ethical standards, or political structures that might unify people.

Key aspects:

Moral Cosmopolitanism. This holds that every human being has a moral obligation to others, that is, every person is a part of a single moral community regardless of their cultural, political, or religious backgrounds. Moral cosmopolitans argue for universal moral standards and often advocate for human rights and humanitarian assistance based on the belief in a shared human dignity.
Political Cosmopolitanism. Political cosmopolitans advocate for global political institutions. They believe that national governments cannot adequately address global problems and that international institutions are necessary to solve issues like climate change, global poverty, and the spread of diseases.
Cultural Cosmopolitanism. Cultural cosmopolitans celebrate the diversity of cultures and the human freedom to choose its own cultural affiliation.
Economic Cosmopolitanism: The idea that humans have certain economic responsibilities towards each other others regardless of location for example by advocating for fair trade, addressing global inequality, and supporting businesses that share those views and promote cosmopolitan ideas.
Legal Cosmopolitanism. Legal cosmopolitanism argues for a global legal framework that transcends national laws and is capable of addressing crimes against humanity. Advocates might support the International Criminal Court and international laws that protect individual rights worldwide.

Critics of cosmopolitanism argue that it is too idealistic and not sufficiently attentive to the importance of local bonds in communities, the significance of national sovereignty, or the value of cultural distinctiveness. Others contend that cosmopolitanism may reflect a form of cultural imperialism and colonialism, where the alluded cosmopolitan and universal values are, in fact, specific ideals of the cultures with power (military, political, economic, and cultural).

Despite the critiques, cosmopolitanism continues to be a significant force in philosophy, particularly in debates about globalization, migration, international law, and global governance. It challenges individuals and societies to reconceptualize their roles and responsibilities in a way that takes into account the interests and values of people worldwide.

Globalism

Globalism as a philosophy refers to the concept that events in one part of the world can have significant consequences in distant parts of the world. While globalism is often associated with economic policies, it also has important philosophical dimensions related to how individuals and nations perceive and interact with each other in an increasingly interconnected world. Globalism serves as a philosophical framework for socio economic globalization.

Key philosophical tenets often associated with globalism:

Interconnectedness: Globalism stresses the idea that no nation is an island. It emphasizes that all humans are part of a global community and that all human acts or omissions have global impacts. The concept of global citizenship arises from globalist thought and implies responsibilities and identities that extend beyond national borders. It encourages humans to consider their impacts on a global scale and to work towards solutions that benefit humanity as a whole.
Cosmopolitanism. Philosophically, globalism is related to cosmopolitanism. Globalists argue for stronger international institutions and global governance structures to address worldwide problems such as climate change, poverty, health, war, etcetera.
Trade. Globalism often embraces the exchange of ideas, goods, and cultures across borders. It sees the mixing of cultures as a positive force that can lead to greater understanding, innovation, and peace. Globalism tends to favor economic integration, free trade, and open markets as a way to foster economic development and reduce conflict.

Critics of globalism come from various ideological perspectives. Some argue that globalism leads to a loss of sovereignty and cultural identity for individual nations. Others contend that it can exacerbate economic inequalities or that it privileges the interests of multinational corporations over those of local communities and environments.

The globalist philosophy is a key part of international relations theory, and it can be seen in contrast to more nationalist or isolationist philosophies that emphasize the importance of independent nation-states, cultural uniqueness, and local governance.

Modernism

Modernism is a cultural and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a response to rapid social, political, and technological changes. It is characterized by a deliberate break from traditional forms and an embrace of innovation.

Key Concepts of Modernist Philosophy:

Rationality. Modernism places a strong emphasis on rationality, logic, and the scientific method as the best means of understanding and shaping the world.
Individualism. The individual and their experiences and perceptions are central to modernist thought, often exploring the inner workings of the mind and the subjective experience of reality.
Anti-Tradition. Modernism often involves a rejection of traditional forms, values, and norms, seeking instead to create new and innovative ways of expression and understanding. Modernist works often experiment with form, style, and content, breaking from conventional structures and seeking new ways to represent reality.
Fragmentation. Many modernist works explore themes of alienation, disillusionment, and the breakdown of social and moral values. Modernist texts and artworks often employ fragmented structures and narratives, reflecting the complexity and fragmentation of modern life.

Modernism has had a profound impact on art, literature, music, philosophy, and other cultural forms, introducing new styles and forms that broke away from traditional conventions. It influenced a range of philosophical movements and theories, including existentialism, structuralism, and others.

Modernism laid the groundwork for many of the cultural and philosophical developments that would follow in the 20th century, including postmodernism, which emerged as both a continuation and a critique of modernist thought.

Structuralism

Structuralism is a theoretical philosophy that emerged in the early to mid-20th century, largely as a reaction to existentialism. It is primarily concerned with the identification and analysis of structures—underlying systems of relationships that govern human life and society.

Key Concepts of Structuralism:

Structures. Systems of signs, symbols, or other elements that are related to each other in a specific way, forming a meaningful whole. For example, language and culture are seen as structures that are shaped by humans and that also shape humans. Language is considered a primary structure that shapes human understanding and culture. Cultural systems, such as myths, rituals, and art, are analyzed as structures that shape and are shaped by human society.
Binarism. Structuralists often explore binary oppositions, such as male/female, nature/culture, and signifier/signified, to understand the structure and meaning of a system.
Objectivity. Structuralism seeks to identify objective, universal structures that govern human life and culture, as opposed to the subjective, individualistic approach of existentialism.

Structuralism has been influential in a variety of fields, including anthropology, linguistics, psychology, and cultural studies. It has faced criticism for its perceived rigidity and emphasis on universal structures, as well as its lack of attention to individual agency and historical change.

Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a broad cultural, philosophical, and intellectual movement that emerged in the mid-to-late 20th century, largely as a reaction to the perceived failings and limitations of modernism.

Key Tenets of Postmodernism:

Skepticism. Postmodernism is skeptical of grand narratives or "meta-narratives" that claim to explain large historical events or social structures. These grand narratives are seen as oversimplifications that exclude diverse perspectives. Postmodernists often explore the relationships between power and knowledge, questioning how knowledge is produced and who controls it.
Deconstruction of Tradition. Postmodernism emphasizes deconstructing traditional ideas, structures, and concepts, leading to a fragmented view of reality and knowledge. Postmodernism questions the existence of a single, objective reality, emphasizing the subjective and constructed nature of knowledge and experience. Postmodern works often use irony, parody, and playfulness to critique traditional forms and conventions.
Pluralism. Postmodernism values diversity, multiculturalism, and the inclusion of marginalized voices, rejecting universal claims or single perspectives. It often blurs the boundaries between high and low culture, genre, and media, allowing for the mixing and merging of different forms and styles.

Postmodernism has been highly influential in art, literature, architecture, philosophy, and other areas, introducing new forms and styles that challenge traditional conventions. However, it has also faced criticisms for its relative lack of clear definitions and boundaries, its potential to undermine notions of truth and objectivity, and its sometimes overly complex and abstract language.

Post-Structuralism

Post-structuralism is a philosophical and theoretical movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily as a response and critique of the rigidity of structuralism. It is characterized by a rejection of fixed or stable meanings. It emphasizes the fluidity of meanings deriving from the multiplicity of interpretations.

Key Concepts of Post-structuralism:

Deconstruction. The dismantling of systems of structures of alleged rigid or binary meaning to reveal their instability and the multiplicity of meanings that arise from them. Nothing is either black or white, but rather of unlimited shades of grey.
Multiple Meanings. The concept that ideas in textbooks do not exist in isolation, but are interrelated with other textbooks, deriving multiple meanings and interpretation from each other. The author of a text or idea does not determine a single meaning because readers and audiences bring their own interpretations and generate multiple meanings. Concepts do not have fixed meanings, but are fluid and open to multiple interpretations.

Post-structuralism has faced criticism for its perceived relativism, complexity, and lack of practical solutions for the issues it raises. Post-structuralism has influenced a range of other movements, including postmodernism, feminist theory, and critical theory.

Feminism

Feminist philosophy is a broad field that encompasses a variety of perspectives and approaches, all of which are united by a commitment to addressing and critiquing the ways in which gender has been used as a category and basis for discrimination. Feminist philosophy seeks to understand and challenge the structures, norms, and ideas that have historically marginalized and oppressed women.

Key Areas of Feminist Philosophy:

Gender bias. Examines how gender influences human understanding of knowledge, truth, and reality. It critiques traditional epistemologies developed by men and that have excluded women's perspectives and experiences.
Ethics. Explores how gender affects moral values, principles, and judgments. It challenges traditional ethical theories that have been formulated mostly by men and that have ignored women's moral experiences and ethical values.
Politics. Investigates the role of gender in political power, institutions, and systems. It critiques the ways in which historical political structures developed by men excluded and marginalized women.
Aesthetics. Examines how gender influences human understanding and appreciation of beauty and art. It critiques the ways in which women have been objectified in art and culture.
Metaphysics. Explores how gender shapes human understanding of reality, existence, and identity. It critiques traditional metaphysical categories that have excluded or marginalized women's experiences.
Intersectionality. A key concept in feminist philosophy that explores how different forms of oppression intersect and interact. It emphasizes the importance of considering race, class, sexuality, and other social categories in addition to gender.

African American Philosophy

African American philosophy refers to the intellectual and philosophical traditions and ideas developed by African Americans, often in response to the unique social, political, and historical conditions faced in the United States. It encompasses a wide range of topics and perspectives, including issues related to race, identity, culture, and social justice. African American philosophy also draws on and contributes to broader philosophical traditions, such as existentialism, pragmatism, and Marxism.

Key themes in African American philosophy include:

Racism: African American philosophers have explored the ways in which race and racism shape the experiences and identities of Black people, as well as the broader social and political structures in which they live.
Intersectionality. Many African American philosophers have highlighted the ways in which race intersects with other aspects of identity, such as gender, class, and sexuality, to create complex and multifaceted experiences of oppression and resistance.
Culture. African American philosophy often emphasizes the importance of cultural traditions and historical experiences in shaping the identities and consciousness of African Americans.
Injustice. A central concern of African American philosophy is the pursuit of social and political justice, and the ways in which the African American community can resist and overcome oppression.

African American philosophy is vibrantly woke and continues to shape debates and discussions changing the world every day.

Economic and Political Philosophies

Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic and political philosophy characterized by private ownership of the means of production, market-based allocation of resources, and the pursuit of profit. In a capitalist system, businesses operate in competition with one another and are driven by the incentive to generate profit for their owners and shareholders.

Key Features of Capitalism:

Private Ownership. Individuals and corporations own and operate businesses and control the means of production.
Market Economy. Prices and the allocation of resources are determined by supply and demand in a free market.
Profit Motive. The primary goal of businesses in a capitalist system is to generate profit for their owners.
Competition. Businesses compete with one another for customers, market share, and profits.
Limited Government Intervention. Ideally, governments play a limited role in the economy, allowing market forces to operate freely.

Varieties of Capitalism:

Laissez-Faire Capitalism. Minimal government intervention in the capitalist economy.
Social Capitalism. Mixed capitalism and socialism, with a strong welfare state and regulations to address social inequalities.
State Capitalism. Mixed economy with some enterprises owned by the government and others owned by private individuals.

Capitalism has been criticized for creating and perpetuating economic inequalities. Critics also argue that the pursuit of profit in capitalism can lead to environmental harm. Concerns about the exploitation of workers and the pursuit of profit at their expense.

Capitalism has been a dominant economic system in the world since the industrial revolution and continues to shape global economics and politics. It has proven to be a dynamic system capable of generating wealth and innovation, but also one that has faced significant critiques and calls for reform.

Socialism

Socialism is a political and economic philosophy that advocates for the collective ownership and control of the means of production, distribution, and exchange, as opposed to private ownership in capitalism. The goal of socialism is to achieve a more equitable distribution of wealth and power, with an emphasis on social justice, cooperation, and solidarity.

Key Features of Socialism:

Collective Ownership. The means of production, such as factories, land, and resources, are owned collectively by the people, often through the state or other forms of common ownership.
Central Planning. Economic activity is often planned and regulated by the state or other collective bodies to ensure that it meets the needs of society as a whole, rather than being driven by profit
Economic Equality. Socialism aims to reduce or eliminate the disparities in wealth and income that are characteristic of capitalist system.
Social Welfare. Emphasis on comprehensive social welfare programs to provide for the basic needs of all citizens, such as healthcare, education, and housing.Varieties of Socialism:

There are various types of socialism.

Democratic Socialism. Advocates for socialism to be achieved through democratic means, with an emphasis on political pluralism and civil liberties.
Revolutionary Socialism. Advocates for a revolutionary transformation of society and the establishment of a "dictatorship of the proletariat".
Libertarian Socialism. Emphasizes the importance of individual liberties and seeks to establish socialism through decentralized, grassroots means rather than through the state.
Market Socialism. Seeks to combine elements of socialism and capitalism, with collective ownership of the means of production but also markets and competition.

Socialism can lead to lack of innovation and stagnation due to central planning, lack of competition, and lack of profit incentive.

Socialism has been a major force in human history, shaping political movements and revolutions across the globe. It continues to be a relevant and contested ideology in contemporary debates worldwide.

Communism

Communist philosophy is primarily a political movement based on the history of class struggles. The theoretical goal is that the means of production are collectively owned and controlled by the people without need for classes or even a state. It envisions a society where people work according to their abilities and receive according to their needs.

Key concepts and theories of communist philosophy:

Historical Materialism. The theory that the development of human societies is driven by the material conditions and economic structures that define each epoch. It posits that the history of society is a history of class struggles, with the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class) being the primary antagonists.
Labor Theory of Value. Theory stating that the value of a commodity is determined by the socially necessary labor time required to produce it. It argues that capitalists exploit workers by paying them less than the value they create, leading to the accumulation of surplus value.
Alienation. The process by which individuals become estranged from their human nature due to the conditions of capitalist production. Marx identified four types of alienation: from the product of labor, from the process of labor, from other workers, and from human potential.
Revolutionary Change. Communist philosophy advocates for a revolutionary transformation of society to overthrow the capitalist system and establish a socialist state that will eventually lead to communism. This involves the proletariat seizing the means of production and dismantling the structures of the bourgeoisie.

Communist philosophy has had a significant impact on global history, influencing various social and political movements worldwide.

Nazism

Nazi or National Socialism philosophy was a political ideology that emerged in Germany in the early 20th century, primarily associated with Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). This philosophy combined extreme nationalism with racist and anti-Semitic beliefs, and it played a central role in the policies and actions of Nazi Germany.

Key Tenets of Nazi Philosophy:

Aryan Supremacy and Anti-Semitism:The Nazis believed in the superiority of the Aryan race and claimed that Jews were their enemies, responsible for many of the world's problems.
Führerprinzip (Leader Principle):This principle asserted that the leader's word was above all written law, and that the Führer (leader) had absolute power and authority.
Nationalism and Territorial Expansion:Nazi philosophy emphasized extreme nationalism and the need to expand German territory to create Lebensraum (living space) for the German people.
Militarism:The Nazis placed a strong emphasis on military strength and believed that conflict and war were necessary to achieve their goals.
Totalitarianism and Propaganda:The Nazi regime sought to control all aspects of public and private life and used propaganda to promote their ideology.
Eugenics and Racial Purity:The Nazis believed in the importance of maintaining racial purity and implemented eugenics policies to achieve this goal, including forced sterilization and the murder of those they deemed "racially inferior."

Nazi philosophy led to immense human suffering and loss, including the genocide of approximately six million Jews during the Holocaust.

Facism

Fascism is a far-right political ideology and movement that emerged in early 20th-century Europe, with its most notable manifestation occurring in Italy under Benito Mussolini. It is characterized by dictatorial power, extreme nationalism, and the suppression of political opposition.

Key Features of Fascism:

Authoritarianism. Centralized, autocratic government led by a dictatorial leader.
Nationalism. Extreme devotion to one's nation and culture, often combined with a sense of superiority over others.
Militarism. A belief in the necessity of a strong military to defend the nation and promote its interests.
Totalitarianism. Seeking to control all aspects of public and private life. Use of force and censorship to suppress political opposition and dissent. Use of mass media to spread ideological messages and obtain total control of public opinion.

While distinct from Italian Fascism, Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party in Germany shared many features of fascism, including authoritarianism, nationalism, and militarism. The Nazi regime also incorporated extreme anti-Semitism and a belief in racial superiority.

Fascism has been widely criticized and opposed for its authoritarian nature, its suppression of dissent, and its often violent and exclusionary policies. Today, the term is often used more broadly to describe any political movement or ideology that exhibits authoritarian, nationalist, and anti-democratic characteristics.

Liberalism

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, democracy, and equal rights under the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, they support ideas and programs such as free and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, and free trade.

Key Tenets of Liberalism:

Freedom. Liberalism places a high value on individual freedoms and rights. The belief is that individuals should be free to make choices about their lives, as long as those choices do not harm others.
Democracy. Liberalism supports democratic governance, where the power is vested in the hands of the people, either directly or through elected representatives.
Rule of Law. Liberals argue for the importance of law and order in society, and that laws should be applied equally to all citizens, regardless of their status or power.
Equal Rights. Liberalism supports equal rights and social justice, advocating for a society where all individuals are given fair treatment and opportunities, regardless of their background or identity.
Capitalism. Many liberals support free market capitalism, arguing that economic freedom and competition lead to innovation and prosperity.
Pluralism. Liberalism values tolerance and the acceptance of diverse perspectives and lifestyles, as long as they do not infringe on the rights and freedoms of others.

Liberalism has evolved over time and has spawned a variety of different strands, including classical liberalism, social liberalism, and neoliberalism, each with their distinct ideas and emphases. The principles of liberalism have played a significant role in shaping modern democratic societies and continue to influence political thought and policy-making worldwide.

Conservatism

Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, practices, and customs. It emphasizes the importance of stability, continuity, and a cautious approach to change or innovation.

Key Tenets of Conservatism:

Tradition. Conservatism values traditional social institutions and practices, seeing them as tested and proven over time. The philosophy resists social changes that undermine traditions.
Hierarchy. Established authorities and hierarchical structures seen as necessary for maintaining social order.
Mythology. Organized religion and the believes in imaginary gods and supernatural forces often play a significant role in conservative philosophy. Most conservatives supposedly base or derive their voiced moral and ethical values from religious teachings.
Capitalism. Economic conservatism emphasizes the importance of free markets and private enterprise as drivers of prosperity and freedom.
Nationalism. Many conservatives have a strong sense of national pride and seek to preserve and protect their national heritage and culture.
Law and Order. Conservatives often emphasize the importance of law and order, seeing it as essential for maintaining a stable and orderly society.
Individualism. Conservatism often stresses the importance of personal responsibility and self-reliance, rather than relying on government intervention or social programs.

The conservative philosophy is diverse, with various strands such as classical conservatism, religious conservatism, and fiscal conservatism, each emphasizing different aspects of the conservative tradition.

Progressivism

Progressivism as a philosophy refers to a broad school of thought that advocates for the idea of progress—meaning that advances in science, technology, economic development, and social organization are vital to improve the human condition. This philosophical orientation became most prominent from the late 19th century into the early 20th century, influenced strongly by the belief in the inevitability of social progress through human innovation and modernization.

The core tenets of progressivism in the context of its philosophical underpinnings include:

Optimism. Progressivists generally maintain a strong belief in the potential for continuous improvement in the human condition through advancements in knowledge, science, and technology.
Reformation. Rather than supporting revolutionary changes, progressivism often focuses on gradual reform of existing social structures by improving laws and institutions.
Research. Progressivists usually emphasize an empirical approach to solving social problems, looking to research and experience rather than to ideology or tradition in formulating policies.
Education. Progressive philosophy emphasizes education and personal development as a way to foster an informed citizenship seemed as essential for a healthy democracy.
Social Justice. Progressivists often seek to address issues of social justice such as gender equality, ending racism, protecting workers' rights, and expanding civil liberties.
Government. A belief that government should play an active role in addressing social problems, regulating the economy, and managing public welfare programs. Progressives tend to advocate for a government that can counterbalance the power of private interests and provide services that individuals cannot provide for themselves.
Environment: Many progressives also emphasize environmental protection and sustainability.

In the political arena, progressivism has inspired a wide range of movements and policies aimed at addressing perceived deficiencies in the social, political, and economic systems. Philosophically, progressivism is associated with pragmatism, especially in the American context. The connection with pragmatism lies in the idea that knowledge should be used to make tangible improvements in the world.

Critiques of progressivism often come from conservative or traditionalist perspectives, which may challenge the notion of continuous progress, argue against the expansive role of government, or emphasize the unintended consequences of rapid social change. There are also critical views from radical perspectives, which may see progressivism as too accommodative to existing power structures and not radical or revolutionary enough in addressing the root causes of social inequities.

Populism

Populism as a philosophy is generally centered around the idea of empowering the "common people" in the face of perceived oppression or neglect by an elite "establishment". It often involves a critique of existing social, economic, or political structures and a call for a more direct form of democracy or greater representation of the people's will. Populism can take on various forms depending on the specific context and the issues at stake, and it can be found on both the left and the right of the political spectrum.

Some of the key elements of populist philosophy include:

People. A focus on the "people" as a homogeneous group with shared interests and values.
Anti-establishment. Opposition to the "elite" or establishment, which is seen as out of touch and with opposed interests as those of common people.
Direct democracy. A call for more direct forms of democracy or greater responsiveness of political institutions to the people's will.
Charismatic leader. Claims to represent the people and act as their voice in the political arena.
Nationalism. An emphasis on national identity or culture as a source of unity and strength.

While populist movements can be a powerful force for positive change, they can also be criticized for their potential to undermine democratic institutions, promote exclusionary or divisive policies, or rely on overly simplistic solutions to complex problems.

Emerging Philosophy

Objetism or Object-Oriented Ontology (OOO)

Object-Oriented Ontology (OOO) is a philosophical movement that emerged in the early 21st century as part of the broader speculative realism trend. OOO rejects the privileging of human existence over the existence of non-human objects, and argues that objects have their own reality independent of human perception or use.

Key concepts and principles:

Flatness: All objects, regardless of their size, complexity, or whether they are human or non-human, are equally real and exist on the same ontological plane.
Withdrawal: Objects exist in a state of withdrawal, meaning that they are always more than how they appear to us or how we interact with them. Objects have their own inner life and reality that is inaccessible to human perception or understanding.
Objetism. Objects are said to exist independently of their relations and uses, and have their own inherent properties and characteristics and even agency. OOO seeks to understand objects in terms of their own inner reality, rather than in terms of their relations or uses.

OOO has been influential in a range of fields, including art, design, literature, and philosophy. It challenges traditional notions of subjectivity and objectivity, and calls for a new approach to understanding the world that takes into account the reality and agency of non-human objects.

Transhumanism

Transhumanism is a philosophical and cultural movement that advocates for the use of technology to enhance the human condition, both physically and mentally, with the ultimate goal of improving human abilities and extending human life. Proponents of transhumanism see it as a way to overcome the limitations and fragility of the human body, and to open up new possibilities for human evolution and progress.

Key Concepts and Ideas:

Human AI Enhancement. The use of technology to improve human cognitive and physical abilities, such as memory, strength, and longevity.
Radical Life Extension. The extension of human lifespan beyond its current natural limits, potentially allowing humans to live for hundreds of years or more.
Mind Uploading. The hypothetical possibility of transferring human consciousness into a computer or robotic body, allowing humans to live indefinitely in a digital form.
Cybernetics and Bioengineering. The integration of technology into the human body, such as the development of brain-computer interfaces, artificial organs, and genetic engineering.
Transhumanism raises numerous ethical questions and potential risks, including concerns about equity, access to technology, and the potential consequences of altering human nature.

Critics of transhumanism raise concerns about the ethical implications of humans creating an "unnatural" version of humanity that may be dangerous to non-technologically enhanced humans.

Transhumanism represents a bold and controversial vision for the future of humanity, one that has the potential to transform not only human bodies and minds, but also the whole construct of society and the dominant perception of reality.

Articialism, Artificial Inteliginism, AInism

These are the candidates for a new philosophy centered on AI. Content coming soon. Stay tuned.

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Artificialism, Artificial Inteliginism, AInism ... new philosophies focused on on AI?

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